斯大林多年来面对反对派表现的很有耐心,但自从出现公然对立的里奥廷平台(Riutin Platform)、党领导人基洛夫被暗杀案,以及日益增长的破坏工业阻止经济增长的迹象,斯大林做出了反应。他支持叶若夫出任内务人民委员部的负责人,并赞同叶若夫领导下的镇压,其中包括在三场莫斯科大审判中大规模逮捕和惩罚党的领导人。这其中发生了许多过激行为,包括酷刑、逼供和牵连无辜的人民,现回想起来非常遗憾。
斯大林、莫洛托夫、卡冈诺维奇等人不仅仅将这些措施看作“恐怖”或“政治迫害”,而是当作对党进行“清洗”的必要措施,不仅从党里将那些明确叛逆的、犯罪的和反对派分子排除出去,而且也将在当时环境下会变得软弱、被分化的和不可靠的人给删选出来,以避免他们的背叛。
从这个意义出发,即使采取了过激行为,但进行大清洗仍是必要的。这样才能使党和国家统一在坚定的领导之下,做好准备与法西斯主义进行一场生死存亡的战争。如果斯大林没有先见之明、勇气和韧性来主持这些清洗(并在它们开始起到反作用时结束他们时),革命和国家可能无法在德国入侵时幸存下来,会比实际伤亡还要多死去数百万人。
卡冈诺维奇和莫洛托夫认为斯大林的残酷和强硬不是一个个人的缺陷,而是时代锻造的一种必须的品质,正如斯大林这个名字也是钢的意思。这是一种必须的品质并得到真正的布尔什维克的钦佩。这与所谓的虚荣、权力欲或偏执狂都毫无关系。然而,随着斯大林面对越来越多党内领导层中同事的背叛,这种残酷无情也越来越明显。
然而,他的无情并不反映在他对个人的权力、财富、豪奢、谄媚、或权力的渴望上。相反,斯大林的韧性,就像他的智力,他的长期辛勤工作,和谦虚等特征一样是完全为党和革命服务的。这或多或少是卡冈诺维奇和莫洛托夫的观点,他们俩是斯大林的亲信,曾经与他一起经过最艰苦的时候,而且他们活得足够长使他们能写下自己的回忆录。
弗的文章结尾猜测赫鲁晓夫对斯大林和贝利亚进行攻击的原因。他提出四种可能的解释:即赫鲁晓夫想推卸自己在“20世纪30年代的不合理的大规模镇压”中应承担的责任,赫鲁晓夫想采取与苏联此前“截然不同”的政治路线,赫鲁晓夫想在与曾经和斯大林关系密切的对手竞争中获得优势,赫鲁晓夫想阻止“与斯大林有关的民主改革”。[49]
所有这些都是可能的解释,他们也不是相互排斥的。然而,其中第二条理由是最重要的。在我与肯尼•托马斯(Thomas Kenny)合写的书《背叛社会主义:苏联崩溃的背后》(Socialism Betrayed: Behind the Collapse of the Soviet Union)中,我们认为赫鲁晓夫针对苏联内政在许多方面选择了一条新路线,而这为戈尔巴乔夫统治时期的苏联崩溃埋下了种子[50]所以,我们并不倾向赞成赫鲁晓夫。
不过,我想说明弗还忽视了赫鲁晓夫行为的另一个原因,即他希望针对前一个阶段做一了断,并彻底结束广泛的政治镇压。而他确实做到了。虽然他作为一个领导者有他的缺陷,但当他将马林科夫、莫洛托夫和卡冈诺维奇从领导层和党里开除出去的时候,赫鲁晓夫明白当时的时势已经不需要将他们监禁起来或予以处决。
弗在一个完全错误的基础上为他的书做出结论,即认为赫鲁晓夫的可耻说谎可以追溯到列宁、马克思和恩格斯那里。因此,弗忽略了导致赫鲁晓夫行为的一个明显的原因而是试图去寻找另一个费解而令人迷惑的原因。他忽略了赫鲁晓夫为结束大规模镇压而做出的不可否认的贡献,而后又对赫鲁晓夫做出一系列可媲美最顽固的冷战意识理论家的指责。正如他们异想天开地将镇压和苏联的所有其他问题都追溯到马克思和列宁那里,弗对赫鲁晓夫的问题也采取这种毫无根据的攀附的做法。
该书对赫鲁晓夫秘密报告和由此报告而发展起来的(针对苏联的)极权主义研究范式重新进行了极为需要而又存在严重缺陷的再分析。对于这样一本书,这是一个令人感到不安但又确实合乎全书基调的结尾。 (完本) 1. Stuart Kahan, The World of the Kremlin: The First Biography of L. M. Kaganovich, The Soviet Union's Architect of Fear (New York: William Morrow and Company, 1987). 2. "Statement of the Kaganovich Family," http://www.revolutionarydemocracy.org and http://.oocities.org/capitolhill/embassy/7213/kagan.html (accessed July 2011). 3. Christopher Read, "Main Currents of Interpretation of Stalin and the Stalin Years," in Christopher Read, ed., The Stalin Years a Reader (Houndmills, Basingstoke, and Hampshire, England: Palgrave MacMillan, 2002), 9. 4. Leon Trotsky, The Revolution Betrayed: What is the Soviet Union and Where is it Going? (Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1937). 5. Hanna Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1951). 6. J. Arch Getty and Roberta T. Manning, "Introduction," Stalinist Terror: New Perspectives (Cambridge, England and New York, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 4. 7. Getty and Manning, 10-13. 8. J. Arch Getty and Oleg V. Naumov, The Road to Terror: Stalin and the Self-Destruction of the Bolsheviks, 1932-1939 (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1999), 591. 9. See essays by Hoffman, Manning, Fitzpatrick, Nove, and Weathcroft in Getty and Manning, and Wendy Goldman, Terror and Democracy in the Age of Stalin: The Social Dynamics of Repression (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007). 10. Getty and Naumov, 52-68. 11. See for example essays by Davies and Harris in Sarah Davies and James Harris, eds., Stalin: A New History (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005). 12. Grover Furr, Khrushchev Lied: The Evidence that Every "Revelation: of Stalin's (and Beria's) "Crimes" in Nikita Khrushchev's Infamous "Secret Speech" to the 20th Party Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union on February 25, 1956 is Provably False (Kettering, Ohio: Erythros Press and Media, 2011). 13. For an example of the immediate impact of the speech on western Communist Parties, see The Anti-Stalin Campaign and International Communism: A Selection of Documents Edited by the Russian Institute of Columbia University (New York: Columbia University, 1956). 14. Domenico Losurdo, "History of the Communist Movement: Failure, Betrayal or Learning Process," Nature, Society and Thought vol. 16, no. 1 (2003), 41. 15. Furr, 141. 16. Dmitrii Shepilov, The Kremlin's Scholar: A Memoir of Soviet Politics under Stalin and Khrushchev (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2007), 72. 17. See for example, "List of places named after Joseph Stalin," http://en.wikipedia.org/wike/List_of_places_after_Joseph_Stalin (accessed July 2001). 18. Furr, 11-20. 19. Furr, 95. 20. Khrushchev quoted by Furr, 22, 41-42, 43-44, 73 21. Shepilov, 71. 22. Boris A. Starkov, "Narkom Ezhov," in Getty and Manning, 36-38. 23. Shepilov, 41. 24. Furr, 143. 25. Robert Conquest, The Great Terror: A Reassessment (New York and Oxford: Oxford Universuty Press, 1990), 479. 26. Amy Knight, Who Killed Kirov? The Kremlin's Greatest Mystery (New York: Hill & Wang, 1999). 27. Matthew Lenoe, "Key to the Kirov Murder on the Shelves of Hokkaido University Library," Slavic Research Center News No. 3 (February, 2006), http://src-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp/eng/news/no13/enews13-essay3.html (accessed July 2011). 28. Matthew E. Lenoe, The Kirov Murder and Soviet History (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2010). 29. Khrushchev quoted by Furr, 35 and 79. 30. Khrushchev quoted by Furr, 42. 31. Furr, 42. 32. Furr, 43. 33. Furr, 43-44. 34. Albert Resis, ed. Molotov Remembers: Inside Kremlin Politics Conversations with Felix Chuev (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 1993), 259. 35. Furr, 44. 36. Furr, 45. 37. Resis, 258. 38. Resis, 263. 39. Getty and Naumov, 25. 40. Furr, 330-331. 41. Furr, 30. 42. Stalin in Furr, 262. 43. Getty and Naumov, 62-64. 44. Furr, 26, 29, 30, 37, 39. 45. Furr, 37, 39. 46. C. Wright Mills, Listen, Yankee: The Revolution in Cuba (New York: Ballantine Books, 1960), 51. 47. William Duranty, Stalin & Co.: The PolitburoÂThe Men Who Run Russia (New York: William Sloane Associates, 1949), 18-19. 48. See for example: "Thus Spake Kaganovich," http://www.oocities.org/capitolhill/embassy/7213/kaganovich.html (accessed July 2011). 49. Furr, 197-199. 50. Roger Keeran and Thomas Kenny, Socialism Betrayed: Behind the Collapse of the Soviet Union (New York: International Publishers, 2004).
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